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Civil engineers need to know as much as possible about the ground beneath their construction sites before carrying out any civil engineering design works. This book provides a comprehensive coverage of the basic aspects of geology for civil and environmental engineering students so that they are able to adequately recognise, interpret and use geological data in the planning, design and monitoring of civil engineering works. The author uses a direct approach of presenting facts but engages the attention of readers with plentiful illustrations so that they are able to get a feel of the geological aspects even while not being directly situated in the environs being discussed. Environmental issues, hazards mitigation and resources engineering in the geological context are highlighted in the book. Case studies of failure of civil works due to ignorance of or inadequate attention to the implications of geological aspects provide interesting insights on the relevance of the subject.
The book meets the curriculum requirements of an undergraduate program in civil engineering.
Vasudev Kanithi, a field geologist, is at present a lecturer at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of the West Indies. Earlier, he taught at Andhra University, India, and the University of Asmara, Eritrea. His PhD work was on coastal processes and he has presented his research findings in several conferences and journals. He has been an independent consultant for several private, public and government projects in the assessment of groundwater potential, especially in hard rock terrains for wells and borewells for domestic, irrigational and industrial purposes. His interests include groundwater exploration, coastal zone management, slope failures and environmental geology.
Preface Acknowledgements
CHAPTER 1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION Relevance of Geology to Civil Engineering Scope of Geology in Civil Engineering Role of an Engineering Geologist Failure of Engineering Structures: Some Case Histories Dams Reservoirs Bridges Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 2 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY Introduction Branches of Geology Main branches Allied branches Summary Review Questions
CHAPTER 3 A PEEP INTO THE EARTH Seismic Waves and the Earth’s Layers Compositional/Chemical Layers Inner core Outer core D” layer Mantle plume Lower mantle Transition region Upper mantle Oceanic crust Continental crust Temperature, Pressure and Density Inside the Earth Mechanical Layers Lithosphere Asthenosphere Mesosphere D” layer Outer core and inner core Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 4 PLATE TECTONICS: A UNIFYING THEORY Introduction: Plates and Plate Tectonics Plate Boundaries Divergent boundary Convergent boundary Transform boundary The Driving Force for Plate Movement The Plate Tectonic System The Supercontinent Cycle: Alfred Wegener and Pangaea The break–up of pangaea Supercontinents—The past and future Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 5 MATERIALS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST Introduction: Minerals Physical properties of minerals Different minerals Introduction: Rocks Classification of rocks Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 6 SURFACE PROCESSES Introduction Surface Processes Weathering Factors of weathering Agents of weathering Types of weathering Geological action of rivers Geological action of ocean waves Geological action of glaciers Geological action of wind Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 7 ENGINEERING SIGNIFICANCE OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND SOILS Introduction Rocks and Geological Formation Contents vii What is Soil? Soil formation Constituents of soil Soil horizons Properties of soils Types of soils Soil classification Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 8 DEFORMATIONAL STRUCTURES IN CRUSTAL ROCKS Introduction Attitude of beds Stress, Strain and Deformation Stress Strain Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 9 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS Introduction Factors affecting the strength, hardness and toughness of rocks Properties of rocks Basic mechanical properties Methods of estimation of rock properties Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 10 GEOLOGY OF DAMS AND RESERVOIRS Introduction Common purposes of dams Parts of a dam Types of dams Geological input required for foundation rocks Geological factors for a suitable site for dam foundation Some important dams in India Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 11 GEOLOGY OF TUNNELS Introduction Tunnelling purposes A Brief History of Tunnelling Methods of excavation Geological considerations in tunnelling Geological conditions that influence tunnelling projects Environment Management Case Studies Delhi metro tunnel construction with EPB shield TBMs Tunnelling Mumbai water supply project Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 12 GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION Introduction Basic Concepts Planimetric map Cadastral map Topographic map Geological map Aerial photos and satellite imageries Digital maps Thematic maps Use of geological maps in civil engineering Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 13 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS FOR SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION Introduction Sub-disciplines in Geophysics Relevance to Civil Engineering Advantages and limitations of geophysical investigations Some Important Geophysical applications Geophysical applications in engineering General Principles Involved in Geophysical Investigations Classification of Geophysical Methods Ground penetrating radar method Gravity methods Magnetic methods Electrical resistivity methods Seismic methods Summary Review Questions References CHAPTER 14 STABILITY OF SLOPES AND CUTTINGS Introduction Slope Processes Slope elements Controls of slope stability Role of troublesome earth materials Triggering events: Shocks Retaining Wall Types Retaining walls Summary Review Questions
CHAPTER 15 ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY Introduction to Seismology and Engineering Seismology Earthquakes and plate tectonics Types of seismic waves Body waves Surface waves Seismic wave properties Focus and epicenter of an earthquake Seismograph and seismogram Determining the ‘time lag’ Magnitudes of earthquakes Seismic hazards Earthquakes in India Seismic imaging Hazard Mitigation Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 16 GEOHYDROLOGY Introduction: Hydrology and Geohydrology Distribution of Water on the Globe Importance of Groundwater Benefits of Groundwater Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle Definition of hydrologic cycle Rock properties affecting groundwater: Aquifers Water table and potentiometric or piezometric surface Rock properties affecting groundwater: Confining beds Types of aquifers Factors Affecting Storage and Movement of Water in an Aquifer Porosity Permeability Classification of subsurface water Geologic Formations as Aquifers Unconsolidated deposits Consolidated rocks Engineering Problems Posed by Groundwater Pore pressure, landslides and slope stability Subsidence Dams Seawater intrusion Inflows into tunnels Inflows into excavations Wet basement problems Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 17 SITE IMPROVEMENT FOR ENGINEERING PROJECTS Introduction Ground Improvement Techniques Grouting Types of grout Soil mixing Dynamic compaction Injection systems for expansive soils Rapid impact compaction Rigid inclusions Vibro compaction Vibro concrete columns Vibro piers Vibro replacement (stone columns) Geotextiles Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 18 QUARRYING OR SURFACE MINING Introduction Quarrying Underground mining Types of quarrying Materials commonly extracted Quarrying methods Cycle of operations and types of machinery in quarries Environmental and Health Impacts due to Quarrying Some cases of environmental damage caused by mining Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 19 ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY Geology and Environmental Geology Population and Resources Depletion of the Earth’s Resources Environmental Concerns Global warming Overdevelopment of available water resources Reduction in quality of available water resources Reduction in air quality Deforestation Earth materials as resource or a disposal site Pollutants and Pollution Effects of Pollution on Biosphere Types of Pollution Water pollution Air pollution Land pollution Noise or sound pollution Electropollution E-pollution The Indian Scenario Air pollution in India Water pollution in India Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 20 REMOTE SENSING AND GIS Introduction to Aerial Photography and Remote Sensing Aerial Photography Basic requirements of aerial photographs Factors influencing the image quality of photographs Processes of aerial photography Planning for photography Type of photography Remote Sensing (RS) Basic concepts Frequencies and wavelengths of some EM waves Atmospheric windows Remote sensing data acquisition systems Analysis techniques Remote sensing applications Geographic Information System (GIS) General applications of GIS Application of RS and GIS in civil engineering Remote sensing in India Recently launched satellites Indian remote sensing and NNRMS Summary Review Questions References
CHAPTER 21 RESOURCES ENGINEERING Introduction Role of Resource Engineering Classification of Resources Natural resources Artificial resources India’s natural resources Conservation of Natural Resources Summary Review Questions References